Conservation and Livelihoods: Conflicts and Contestations around Nepal's Protected Areas

Tropical developing countries are advancing ambitious conservation programmes in line with Global Biodiversity Framework Target 3: 30x30. Nepal presents an exemplary case of successful conservation efforts, with a quarter of its landmass designated under the protected area system. However, this apparent success has come with significant social costs, particularly for poor and vulnerable groups. The country’s seven decades of protected area history reveal widespread park–people conflicts. Indigenous peoples and local communities continue to contest and oppose protected areas. A review of Nepal’s protected area history, along with ongoing conflicts and contestations, offers important lessons for reframing conservation policy and practice in Nepal and beyond.